General History of China

China Road

An introduction to the long development of Chinese civilization, tracing the ideas, institutions, cultural traditions and historical forces that shaped China’s distinctive path from antiquity to the end of imperial rule.

Jan 21, 2013

The Earliest Chinese

Archaeological discoveries reveal the prehistoric peoples who lived across ancient China and the gradual formation of communities, cultures and shared traditions that would contribute to later Chinese civilization.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise of Agriculture

The episode explores the origins of farming in ancient China, including the domestication of millet and rice, the growth of settled communities and the social changes produced by agricultural life.

Jan 21, 2013

The Origins of Civilization

Early cities, ritual centers, crafts and systems of social organization illuminate the transition from Neolithic cultures to complex civilization in the lands that became China.

Jan 21, 2013

The Age of Early States

Competing regional societies developed fortified settlements, political hierarchies and ritual authority, laying the foundations for the earliest states recorded in Chinese history.

Jan 21, 2013

The Xia Dynasty

Archaeology and ancient texts are examined in the search for the Xia, traditionally regarded as China’s first dynasty, with particular attention to the Erlitou culture and debates over its identity.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise and Fall of the Shang Dynasty

The Shang dynasty emerges as a powerful Bronze Age kingdom before internal weakness and military defeat bring its rule to an end at the hands of the Zhou.

Jan 21, 2013

Shang Civilization

Oracle bones, bronze vessels, royal tombs and sacrificial practices reveal the political order, religious beliefs, warfare and artistic achievements of Shang civilization.

Jan 21, 2013

King Wu's Conquest of Shang

The Zhou campaign against the last Shang king culminates in the Battle of Muye, establishing a new dynasty and introducing the enduring political idea of the Mandate of Heaven.

Jan 21, 2013

The Regency of the Duke of Zhou

Serving as regent for the young King Cheng, the Duke of Zhou suppresses rebellion, consolidates Zhou rule and helps shape political and ritual institutions revered by later generations.

Jan 21, 2013

The Decline of the Zhou Royal House

The authority of the Zhou kings weakens as regional lords grow more powerful, leading to the fall of the Western Zhou and the fragmented political order of the Eastern Zhou.

Jan 21, 2013

The Struggle for Supremacy in the Spring and Autumn Period

Powerful states and ambitious rulers compete for leadership while alliances, reforms and warfare transform the political landscape of the Spring and Autumn period.

Jan 21, 2013

Confucius

The life and teachings of Confucius are explored, from his search for ethical government to the development of ideas about ritual, virtue, education and social responsibility.

Jan 21, 2013

Reforms Among the Warring States

Rival states adopt sweeping military, administrative and economic reforms as rulers seek stronger governments and armies during an age of intensifying competition.

Jan 21, 2013

The Seven Warring States

The seven major powers struggle for survival and supremacy through diplomacy, strategy and mass warfare, setting the stage for Qin’s eventual conquest of its rivals.

Jan 21, 2013

The Hundred Schools of Thought

Philosophers including Confucians, Daoists, Mohists and Legalists offer competing answers to the disorder of their age, creating a rich intellectual legacy for Chinese civilization.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise of the State of Qin

Through geography, military organization and the reforms of Shang Yang, Qin develops into the most centralized and formidable of the Warring States.

Jan 21, 2013

Qin Shi Huang Unifies China

The king of Qin conquers the rival states, becomes China’s First Emperor and imposes far-reaching systems of administration, law, measurement, writing and imperial control.

Jan 21, 2013

The Chu-Han Contention

After the fall of Qin, Xiang Yu and Liu Bang battle for control of China in a dramatic civil war that ends with the founding of the Han dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

The Parallel System of Commanderies and Kingdoms

The early Han balances centrally administered commanderies with semi-autonomous kingdoms, creating tensions that test the new dynasty’s ability to maintain unity.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rule of Wen and Jing

Emperors Wen and Jing reduce taxes and state burdens, encourage recovery and strengthen the Han through cautious government, producing an era remembered for stability and prosperity.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Wu of Han

Emperor Wu expands Han power, confronts the Xiongnu, centralizes authority and promotes Confucian state ideology, while the costs of warfare place heavy demands on the empire.

Jan 21, 2013

Confucian Learning During the Two Han Dynasties

Confucian classics become central to education, scholarship and government as Han thinkers interpret ancient texts and establish traditions that influence imperial China for centuries.

Jan 21, 2013

The Reign of Emperors Zhao and Xuan

Following Emperor Wu’s expensive campaigns, the Han court pursues recovery, administrative reform and more restrained government under Emperors Zhao and Xuan.

Jan 21, 2013

Wang Mang's Reforms

Wang Mang seizes the throne and launches ambitious reforms intended to restore ancient institutions, but resistance, economic disruption and rebellion bring his Xin dynasty to collapse.

Jan 21, 2013

The Restoration of Emperor Guangwu

Liu Xiu reunifies the realm after years of rebellion, restores the Han dynasty as Emperor Guangwu and rebuilds imperial government from a new capital at Luoyang.

Jan 21, 2013

The Silk Road

Diplomacy, conquest and long-distance trade connect Han China with Central Asia and lands farther west, carrying goods, technologies, religions and cultures across Eurasia.

Jan 21, 2013

The Pure Critiques and the Partisan Prohibitions

Scholar-officials criticize corruption and eunuch power at the Eastern Han court, provoking political purges that deepen factional conflict and weaken the dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

The Yellow Turban Rebellion

Religious movements, social distress and resentment of the Han government erupt into the Yellow Turban uprising, accelerating the breakdown of imperial authority.

Jan 21, 2013

The Three Kingdoms

The collapse of the Han gives rise to the rival states of Wei, Shu and Wu, whose rulers and generals compete through warfare, diplomacy and shifting alliances.

Jan 21, 2013

Zhuge Liang Governs Shu

As chief minister of Shu Han, Zhuge Liang seeks to stabilize the state, improve administration, develop the southwest and pursue campaigns against the stronger kingdom of Wei.

Jan 21, 2013

The Unification Under Western Jin

he Sima family replaces Wei, conquers Shu and Wu and briefly reunites China under the Western Jin before court conflict and rebellion undermine the dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

The Spirit of the Wei and Jin Periods

Amid political turmoil, scholars and artists cultivate personal expression, philosophical debate and unconventional lifestyles that define the celebrated cultural spirit of the Wei and Jin.

Jan 21, 2013

Rule by the Great Aristocratic Clans

Powerful hereditary families dominate politics and society during the era of division, shaping court government, official appointments and relations between northern émigrés and southern elites.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Wu of Liang's Government

Emperor Wu presides over a long reign marked by cultural patronage, Buddhist devotion and administrative ambition, but court weakness and rebellion ultimately devastate the Liang dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Xiaowen's Reforms

The Northern Wei emperor moves the capital to Luoyang and promotes sweeping cultural and political reforms intended to integrate his dynasty with the traditions of the Central Plains.

Jan 21, 2013

Emporer Wu of Northern Zhou

Emperor Wu strengthens the Northern Zhou, curbs rival institutions and conquers Northern Qi, bringing northern China closer to reunification before his sudden death.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise and Fall of the Chen Dynasty

The final southern dynasty struggles to preserve stability and independence until internal weakness and the military power of Sui bring the Chen dynasty to an end.

Jan 21, 2013

Buddhism in the Wei and Jin Periods

Buddhism spreads and adapts across a divided China, influencing philosophy, art, ritual and monastic life while becoming deeply rooted in Chinese society.

Jan 21, 2013

The Restoration of Unity

After centuries of division, Yang Jian founds the Sui dynasty, defeats rival regimes and reunifies China through centralized institutions and large-scale reconstruction.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Yang of Sui: Achievements and Failures

Emperor Yang expands canals, capitals and imperial projects, but costly wars, forced labor and rebellion turn spectacular ambition into the rapid collapse of the Sui.

Jan 21, 2013

The Reign of Zhenguan

Emperor Taizong and his ministers establish a respected model of Tang government based on political consultation, military success, legal order and restrained rule.

Jan 21, 2013

Empress Wu Zetian

Wu Zetian rises from imperial consort to become China’s only female emperor, using political skill, administrative reform and patronage to secure her extraordinary rule.

Jan 21, 2013

The Prosperous Kaiyuan Era

Under Emperor Xuanzong, the Tang reaches a height of wealth, cultural achievement and international influence before complacency and court tensions threaten the flourishing empire.

Jan 21, 2013

The An Lushan Rebellion

A frontier commander’s revolt plunges the Tang into years of war, causing immense destruction and permanently weakening central authority.

Jan 21, 2013

The Predicament of the Middle and Late Tang

Regional military governors, eunuch influence, fiscal strain and court factionalism erode Tang power as the dynasty struggles to govern an increasingly divided empire.

Jan 21, 2013

Chang'an: Metropolis of the World

The Tang capital is presented as a vast, cosmopolitan city where officials, merchants, diplomats, monks and travelers from across Asia meet.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise and Fall of the Tibetan Empire

The Tibetan Empire expands across the plateau and Central Asia, alternately fighting and negotiating with Tang China before internal conflict brings its imperial power to an end.

Jan 21, 2013

Dunhuang

The oasis city of Dunhuang preserves the artistic and religious legacy of the Silk Road through its caves, manuscripts, murals and centuries of cultural exchange.

Jan 21, 2013

The Tang Dynasty's Foreign Relations

Envoys, merchants, monks and armies connect the Tang with neighboring states and distant regions, making the dynasty a central power in a broad Asian world.

Jan 21, 2013

Religion During the Tang Dynasty

Buddhism, Daoism and foreign faiths flourish in Tang China, shaping art and society while also becoming entangled in debates over wealth, authority and state control.

Jan 21, 2013

The Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms

Following the Tang collapse, short-lived northern dynasties and competing southern kingdoms divide China until new political and military forces prepare the way for reunification.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Taizu of Song

Zhao Kuangyin founds the Song dynasty, reunifies much of China and limits military power through institutions designed to place civil government above the generals.

Jan 21, 2013

The Chanyuan Treaty

After years of conflict, Song and Liao negotiate a landmark peace that stabilizes their frontier and creates a lasting diplomatic relationship between rival empires.

Jan 21, 2013

Governing the Realm with the Scholar-Officials

The Song expands examinations, schools and civil administration, creating a government in which educated scholar-officials exercise unprecedented influence.

Jan 21, 2013

Wang Anshi's Reforms

Wang Anshi introduces controversial policies to strengthen state finances, defense and rural society, dividing the Song court between reformers and their opponents.

Jan 21, 2013

The Jingkang Catastrophe

Jurchen armies capture the Northern Song capital and its emperors, ending the dynasty’s rule in the north and forcing the court to rebuild in the south.

Jan 21, 2013

War and Peace Between Song and Jin

The Southern Song and Jin alternate between fierce warfare and negotiated peace as each seeks security, legitimacy and control of the contested frontier.

Jan 21, 2013

The Southern Song's Refuge in the Southeast

Driven from northern China, the Song establishes a new center in the prosperous southeast, where commerce, maritime activity and urban culture support a resilient dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

The Dreamlike Splendor of the Eastern Capital

The bustling life of Northern Song Kaifeng is reconstructed through markets, festivals, entertainment and urban scenes immortalized in art and literature.

Jan 21, 2013

Neo-Confucianism During the Song Dynasty

Song thinkers reinterpret Confucian tradition through new discussions of morality, human nature and the cosmos, culminating in a philosophy that reshapes education and government.

Jan 21, 2013

Song Dynasty Culture

Printing, scholarship, painting, literature, science and urban life illustrate the extraordinary cultural creativity of the Song era.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise of Khitan

The Khitan peoples unite under Abaoji, found the Liao dynasty and build an empire that combines steppe traditions with institutions suited to ruling agricultural lands.

Jan 21, 2013

The Founding of Western Liao

After the fall of the Liao in the east, Yelü Dashi leads Khitan followers westward and establishes a powerful new state in Central Asia.

Jan 21, 2013

Wanyan Aguda

The Jurchen leader Wanyan Aguda unites his people, rebels against Liao domination and founds the Jin dynasty, transforming the balance of power in northern China.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise and Fall of the Jin Dynasty

The Jin conquers the Liao and Northern Song, rules a vast multiethnic realm and then faces internal strain and the devastating advance of the Mongols.

Jan 21, 2013

Liao and Jin Culture

The cultural achievements of the Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin reveal societies that blended their own traditions with the institutions, religions and arts of neighboring peoples.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise and Fall of Western Xia

The Tangut state builds a distinctive empire along the northwestern frontier, develops its own script and culture, and survives between powerful neighbors until the Mongol conquest.

Jan 21, 2013

The Rise of the Mongols

Temüjin unites the Mongol tribes as Genghis Khan and creates a military empire whose campaigns transform Eurasia and threaten every state in northern China.

Jan 21, 2013

Kublai Khan

Kublai Khan completes the conquest of the Southern Song, establishes the Yuan dynasty and governs China as ruler of a vast, multiethnic Mongol empire.

Jan 21, 2013

Imperial Progresses Between the Two Capitals

The Yuan court moves seasonally between Dadu and Shangdu, reflecting the dynasty’s effort to balance steppe traditions with the administration of China.

Jan 21, 2013

Phagpa, Imperial Preceptor of the Great Yuan

The Tibetan lama Phagpa becomes an influential adviser to Kublai Khan, shaping Yuan religious policy and creating a new script intended for the empire.

Jan 21, 2013

The Maritime Silk Road

Ports, ships and merchant communities link Yuan China to Southeast Asia, India and the wider Indian Ocean through a flourishing network of maritime trade.

Jan 21, 2013

Marco Polo and China

The celebrated traveler’s account provides a window into Yuan China while raising enduring questions about observation, memory and the transmission of knowledge between East and West.

Jan 21, 2013

Emperor Shun of Yuan

The last Yuan emperor confronts factional conflict, natural disasters, fiscal crisis and widespread rebellion as Mongol rule in China collapses.

Jan 21, 2013

Zhu Yuanzhang, Founder of the Ming Dynasty

From impoverished beginnings and rebellion against the Yuan, Zhu Yuanzhang rises to found the Ming dynasty and creates an intensely centralized imperial state.

Jan 21, 2013

The Yongle Emperor Moves the Capital

The Yongle Emperor transfers the Ming capital to Beijing, constructs the Forbidden City and reshapes the political and strategic center of the empire.

Jan 21, 2013

Zheng He’s Voyages to the Western Oceans

The Ming court dispatches Zheng He’s enormous fleets across Southeast Asia and the Indian Ocean, projecting imperial prestige through diplomacy, trade and maritime power.

Jan 21, 2013

The Grand Secretariat System

The Ming grand secretariat evolves into a powerful coordinating institution, helping emperors manage the bureaucracy despite the dynasty’s formal rejection of the chancellorship.

Jan 21, 2013

The Tumu Crisis

A disastrous campaign against the Oirats ends with the capture of the Ming emperor, creating a succession crisis and exposing serious weaknesses in court and military leadership.

Jan 21, 2013

Wang Yangming's Philosophy of Mind

The philosopher Wang Yangming teaches that moral knowledge is rooted within the mind and must be united with action, challenging established interpretations of Neo-Confucian learning.

Jan 21, 2013

Maritime Frontiers and Foreign Trade

Jan 21, 2013

Zhang Juzheng's Reforms

The grand secretary Zhang Juzheng strengthens finances, administration and imperial authority through ambitious reforms, but his program faces reversal after his death.

Jan 21, 2013

The Jesuits Come to China

Jesuit missionaries enter late Ming China and build relationships through astronomy, mathematics, cartography and scholarship, opening a complex new era of cultural exchange.

Jan 21, 2013

The Market Towns of Jiangnan

Commercial towns, specialized crafts and regional markets transform the prosperous Jiangnan region into one of the most dynamic centers of the late imperial economy.

Jan 21, 2013

Silver Capital

The influx and circulation of silver reshape taxation, trade and everyday life in Ming China, tying the empire more closely to emerging global economic networks.

Jan 21, 2013

The Chongzhen Emperor

The final Ming emperor struggles against rebellion, fiscal collapse, factional conflict and external threats as the dynasty moves toward catastrophe.

Jan 21, 2013

Entering and Ruling the Central Plains

The Manchus cross the Great Wall, seize Beijing and begin the difficult process of conquering and governing China under the new Qing dynasty.

Jan 21, 2013

The Consolidation of the Qing Dynasty

Early Qing rulers suppress resistance, rebuild administration and adapt imperial institutions in order to secure their authority over a vast and diverse realm.

Jan 21, 2013

The Recovery of Taiwan

The Qing defeats the Zheng regime in Taiwan and incorporates the island into the empire, reshaping maritime defense and cross-strait administration.

Jan 21, 2013

The Great Enterprise of Unification

Through warfare, diplomacy and frontier administration, the Qing expands and consolidates a multiethnic empire across Inner Asia and the Chinese heartland.

Jan 21, 2013

The Grand Council

Created to handle urgent military affairs, the Grand Council develops into the Qing emperor’s most efficient instrument for confidential decision-making and centralized rule.

Jan 21, 2013

Incorporating the Poll Tax into the Land Tax

A major Qing fiscal reform merges head taxes with land taxes, simplifying collection and altering the relationship between population, property and state revenue.

Jan 21, 2013

Civil Government and the Literary Inquisitions

The Qing sponsors scholarship and cultural projects while also prosecuting writings considered politically dangerous, revealing the close connection between learning and imperial control.

Jan 21, 2013

Reluctant Self-Strengthening

After military defeats, Qing officials adopt Western weapons, industry and technical knowledge while attempting to preserve the dynasty’s traditional political and cultural foundations.

Jan 21, 2013

The Opium War

Commercial conflict, opium smuggling and diplomatic confrontation lead to war with Britain, exposing Qing military weakness and beginning a new era of unequal foreign pressure.

Jan 21, 2013

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom

A vast religious rebellion establishes the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom and wages a devastating civil war that transforms Qing politics, society and regional military power.

Jan 21, 2013

The First Sino-Japanse War

Conflict over Korea ends in a decisive Japanese victory, revealing the limits of Qing reform and triggering a profound crisis over China’s future.

Jan 21, 2013

Reform and Revolution

Intellectuals, officials and activists pursue constitutional reform, modernization and revolution as the Qing struggles to respond to domestic crisis and foreign pressure.

Jan 21, 2013

The End of Imperial Rule

Revolution spreads across China, forcing the abdication of the last Qing emperor in 1912 and bringing more than two thousand years of imperial government to an end.

Jan 21, 2013